Literature+Review

Although football has been around much longer, by the early 1900’s, collegiate level football in the United States had become rather dangerous. According to Hawes (1999a), staff writer for the NCAA News, numerous athletes suffered severe injuries and some even died, prompting many colleges to push for reform or ban the sport altogether. During this time, a “loosely formed national football rules committee” existed, however this group did not have the authority to reform football (‘One human life is too big a price’ section, para. 4). Through initial efforts in 1905 by Henry MacCracken, the chancellor of New York University, as well as President Roosevelt, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) was formed. Originally called the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS), the NCAA took its current name in 1910.
 * Introduction** The modern student-athlete is sometimes viewed as just another regular student that has chosen to make athletics apart of their lives. However, these added commitments do not just have an effect on the career development process. They also make the path to educational attainment more difficult. Students that move on to college athletics generally just commit to playing for the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) without understanding the history of the organization or how it developed into the multi-billion dollar company that it is today. It is important for athletes to understand the history of collegiate sports, particularly women who were not granted an equal athletic status to men until 1972. Their rights as athletes are defined in this and should be understood. The NCAA also has a strict rulebook that lays out various rules and regulations that all students must follow in order to remain eligible (academically and otherwise) to participate in their respective sports. By explaining the importance of education in the future career process, these rules are of utmost importance so that students can maintain their scholarships and complete their degree program. Athletics always pose a risk to physical health and these medical issues can lead to severe chronic health problems including depression, chronic heart defects, and early-onset Alzheimer's. This is in addition to the risk that is taken when student-athletes use illegal drugs to increase performance, particularly anabolic steroids. It is crucial for student-athletes to understand the effects that various injuries and drugs can have on their overall mental and physical health due to the way these health problems could impair an individual's ability to complete certain job tasks or live a healthy lifestyle. While the ideal goal for most student-athletes is to become a professional, this likelihood is very slim. Therefore, it is imperative that student-athletes investigate alternate career choices so that they have viable backup plans. This begins with the process of finding the appropriate school (academically and athletically), choosing a major subject of study, and making sure it fits their needs whether it is sports related or not.  **History of NCAA & Title IX**

In March of 1906, the Association released an official constitution and set of laws wherein article two of the constitution states the Association’s intention. “Its object shall be the regulation and supervision of college athletics throughout the United States, in order that the athletic activities … may be maintained on an ethical plane in keeping with the dignity and high purpose of education” (as cited in Hawes, 1999a, Taking control of college sports section, para. 1). The Association had 67 member institutions by 1909 and that number increased to 170 by 1919. Unfortunately, the NCAA did not have the resources at this time to police its regulations and therefore had to depend on each member institution to self-regulate the policies set forth.

In 1940, members of the Association approved the NCAA Executive Committee to investigate alleged regulation violations and issue interpretations of the constitution. While this was progress, the NCAA still did not have a means to enforce its rules and policies. Some issues the NCAA hoped to regulate related to amateurism, institutional control and responsibility, academic standards, financial aid, and recruiting; these continue to be issues today (Brown, 1999). After more than a decade of scandals relating to these issues, a nationwide poll made available to the public by the Association Press in 1989, “showed overwhelmingly that Americans widely doubted the integrity of top college athletics programs” (Hawes, 1999b, Death penalty section, para. 5). In response to the many scandals, the NCAA Council assigned the Select Committee on Athletic Problems and Concerns in Higher Education to deal with these matters and soon after established the NCAA Presidents Commission to provide more accountability in the supervision of intercollegiate athletics (Hawes, 1999b).

The Education Amendments Act of 1972, signed into law by President Nixon, included the Title IX federal mandates that “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (as cited in Vest & Masterson, 2007). Up until this point the NCAA had excluded women’s sports; Title IX provided a way for women to be integrated into collegiate sports. In 1973, the NCAA repealed its rule barring female student-athletes from NCAA championship competitions thus allowing the first female athlete to compete in an NCAA championship (swimming and diving) in that same year (Hawes, 1999b). The 1981-82 season brought the first NCAA women’s championships in basketball, field hockey, tennis, swimming, and volleyball. Then in 1988, Congress passed the Civil Rights Restoration Act, “requiring that all educational institutions that receive either direct or indirect federal funds be subject to Title IX” (Hawes, 1999b, Title IX impact section, para. 7), thereby solidifying Title IX’s place in history. **NCAA Rules, Regulations, and the Effects on Education**
 * The NCAA Manual**

The 2010-11 NCAA Division I Manual is a voluminous annually updated record that asserts: “The competitive athletics programs of member institutions are designed to be a vital part of the educational system” (Article 1.3.1, p. 1). The Manual then states its basic purpose: “to maintain intercollegiate athletics as an integral part of the educational program and the athlete as an integral part of the student body and, by so doing, retain a clear line of demarcation between intercollegiate athletics and professional sports” (Article 1.3.1, p. 1). Perhaps even more compelling is the Manual’s identified obligations of member institutions: “Legislation governing the conduct of intercollegiate athletics programs of member institutions shall apply to basic athletics issues such as admissions, financial aid, eligibility and recruiting. Member institutions shall be obligated to apply and enforce this legislation and the enforcement procedures of the Association shall be applied to an institution when it fails to fulfill this obligation” (Article 1.3.2, p. 1). Consequently, the student athlete(s) and the respective institution(s) are accountable and, therefore, best to make well-informed choices. In the interest of making-informed choices prior to realizing NCAA membership, the student athlete will benefit from the wealth of readily available NCAA data generated for the purpose of informing member institutions and others about the NCAA’s study of student-athletes’ academic performance.

Paramount to overall educational success (social, academic, and athletic) in the post-secondary setting is the need for individual student athletes to actively engage with this “living” document as technical members to better understand the legislative and practical aspects of the organization in which they choose to participate and to be more mindful of the potential and real implications and ramifications of NCAA active membership. The educational experience of the NCAA student athlete is not without criticism. Sharp and Sheilly (2008) state that “many commentators believe that the current commercial structure of big-time college sports is essentially incompatible with education…Numerous books have addressed the basic incompatibility of big-time college athletics and educational primacy (Sharp and Sheilley, 2008, p. 103). Sharp and Sheilley (2008) illuminate the core concerns: “Not only do typical athletes in big-time sports enter at an academic disadvantage, they often encounter a diluted educational experience while attending their schools” (p. 103). In its own defense, the 2010-11 NCAA Division I Manual specifies its commitment to educational primacy: “Intercollegiate athletics programs shall be conducted in a manner designed to protect and enhance the physical and educational well-being of student-athletes…The admission, academic standing and academic progress of student-athletes shall be consistent with the policies and standards adopted by the institution for the student body in general” (2.2 and 2.5, pp. 3-4).
 * Informed Ownership of the Manual By The NCAA Student Athlete**

Ultimately, the NCAA student athlete must be mindful and take ownership of their overall educational experience. In doing so, the NCAA student athlete is aware that there exist obstacles in the process of receiving a meaningful education including: time demands; choice of major; negative stereotypes and academic motivation; and the culture of the team (Sharp and Sheilley, 2008). At the same time, Sharp & Sheilley (2008) aptly point out that there are many strategies that can be implemented to help student athletes in their quest for a meaningful education. Clearly, awareness of and respect for the issues aforementioned and the content balance of the NCAA Manual will foster a successful educational experience for the NCAA student athlete.

Even before encountering the obstacles and rewards of NCAA membership, it is important for potential members to recognize NCAA’s data presented under “Resources” on their home page that reflects the reality that a small percentage of high school athletes eventually experience NCAA membership, a smaller percent of NCAA members realize professional athletic careers, and, overall in most NCAA athletic domains, less than 0.08% percent of high school students realize professional athletic careers (“Chart on the Probability,” n.d.). Therefore, it is critical for student athletes to have personally considered their career plan in the long-term and to have identified – if not prepared for – the likelihood that they will not continue their athletic career beyond the collegiate level. Alternate career choices and respective road maps must be strategically identified. **Student Athletes and Steroids** ** One of the most common NCAA violations is the use of illegal substances. One of the most common illegal substances used is steroids. Anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of the male hormone testosterone (Hartgens & Kuipers 2004). Although not all steroids are anabolic, many have the same effect. Steroids can be used in many ways such as creams, injections, and a pill. Many high school and college students have been exposed to steroids while some even go as far as using the drug. What is clear is the fact that these students choose to use steroids because of the immediate effects it can have on their performance. These effects can be seen in some of the student’s favorite professional athletes who serve as role models for these student athletes. Although steroids have been known to enhance physical appearance and athletic ability, there are many negative effects that student athletes should be aware of before considering the use of this dangerous drug. **
 * A Career Perspective on Collegiate Sports**

Before students expose their bodies to steroids, they should have a common background of some of the basic affects that steroids will have. Steroids have been known to have many harmful affects to the cardiovascular system. Some basic problems can include cardiomyopathy, partial fibrillation, and cerebrovascular accident (537). Symptoms can be as basic as these or as serious as heart failure. Steroids can also increase blood pressure and cholesterol which may create short term health problems associated with these health concerns.

Although an athlete’s physical appearance may be well defined and muscular early on in steroid use, there many negative affects that come with these impressive physiques. Men have shown to have hair loss, increased sex drive, and an extreme increase in aggressive behavior while women have shown to have hair loss from the head, breast reduction, and irregular growth in the pubic area (536). It is common that most young athletes do not know the consequences when using steroids and is something that needs to be continually addressed.

These long term effects can play an intricate role in the career of these young individuals. Although some athletes may make it to the professional level, their health may become a threat and not allow them to play their respective sport. Also, athletes who use steroids that choose to go into labor oriented work may not be able to complete their occupational standards due to the health risks that arise. Before students consider steroid use, they need to know what they are getting themselves into.

**Physical and Mental Health in Student Athletes** ** Steroid use is certainly a problem that is plaguing sports, but perhaps an even more worrisome issue revolves around the chronic medical and personal issues facing athletes. Student athletes need to be aware of the negative effects that sports can have on their lives holistically prior to stepping foot on the field, court, and/or ice for their own safety. **

In what was once considered just a hard hit, concussions have become all too common in the modern sporting world. They have been linked to extremely concerning mental health issues including depression, memory and concentration problems, and increased irritability. While one would think these symptoms might only be the immediate effects of concussion, it was found by Sigurdardottir, Andelic et. al (2009) that these side effects are present in 50 to 60 percent of all people three months after even just a mild traumatic brain injury (p. 493). Applying these results to adult athletes is important, but the effects that are had on young athletes provide even more red flags.

As children and adolescents grow, their brain goes through various changes as it develops. Repeated blows to the head can severely impact an individual’s health at this stage of life and lead to extreme health issues. Such was the case with former University of Pennsylvania football player Owen Thomas who committed suicide (Rinaldi, 2010). Thomas had been playing football since the age of nine and was never diagnosed with a concussion, but brain research after his death found that he was suffering from Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (dementia pugilistica), a condition that causes symptoms including “memory problems, poor coordination, [and] impaired speech” in addition to “tremors, slow movement, and muscle stiffness” (Mayo Clinic, 2009). The repeated blows to the head that he took were attributed to the development of this condition.

Sports do not only serve as a threat to a student athlete’s physical health, but there are many other aspects of personal health that need to be monitored in aspiring athletes. The role of athlete in a child and/or young adult’s life can sometimes dwarf other important roles a person should play including friend, child, student, and employee. This is addressed by Weise-Bjornstal (2009) when she discusses the key dimensions of athlete health which include social, emotional, and spiritual health among others (p. 70). For instance, in youth, social-cultural health is affected by being isolated because of sport and parental pressure. In turn, this leads to a loss of social status and potential substance abuse in the college years, which has an economic impact in adulthood and limits social options.

All of these factors play a significant role in a person’s life over the entire lifespan and could have an effect on future career choices. Seeing as most athletes will not be a professional in their respective sports, it is imperative to not only educate student athletes about their own mental and physical health, but also to advise them in preparing for life after sports by guiding them to an appropriate alternate career path. **Finding an Alternate Career for Student Athletes** Student athletes are sometimes viewed as having an easy road because their sport can result in scholarships, recognition in school, and a high-paying career if they make it in a professional league. However true these things may be, student athletes also have a more intense responsibility than the average student in that they practice daily, must commit nights and weekends to games (which sometimes involve travel), and they need to find a way to balance that with their schoolwork. Shurts and Shoffner (2004) recognize this difficult position and go so far as to say that student athletes are so busy that they are the ones that might need the most career guidance because they have “less time to devote to career development and life preparation activities” (p. 99). It is very easy for student athletes to depend on their athletic prowess to define their career which is something that is far too common despite the small likelihood of actually becoming a career athlete.

The dream of most student athletes whether they are in elementary school or a star at a Division-I university is to play their sport professionally. This utopian view of future careers is confirmed by Sandstedt, Cox et. al (2004) when they state that “although only 2% of all collegiate athletes advance to professional levels… [it has been] found that 48% of a sample of 122 basketball and football players expected to play professional sports” (p. 80). With this in mind, it is imperative that school and career counselors working with these individuals take the time to help student athletes identify alternative career choices. This way, when they are forced to enter the world of work (whether they make it to a professional sports league or not), they are prepared to find an acceptable and satisfying occupation.

This process can start as early as middle school when most student athletes start more organized school sports that involve inter-school competition. While it is not advisable to detract student athletes from wanting to improve as athletes or do their best to meet their dreams of being a professional athlete, it is prudent to inform them of the various sports-related careers that are available to them. This is presented by Beale and Jacobs (2004) through the use of multiple classroom or group-based activities specifically the “Sports Occupations Values Auction” which involves the analysis of a Holland code after the administration of an age appropriate Holland Self-Directed Search (p. 115). In having students decide whether or not they would like various jobs that hold certain tasks at their core (see Appendix B), the activity allows students another chance to attain a Holland code. Upon doing so, a list of sports-related careers grouped by Holland code are presented for the students to explore alternative options that might fit their values and are still in the realm of sports work. This realistic exercise promotes student interests while still nurturing their ideal future career. **Conclusion** The alternative career path is not something some student-athletes will like to think about. Whether it dashes their dreams or maybe just seems like an inconvenience in their busy academic and athletic schedules, it is quite possibly the most important thing a student-athlete must spend time focusing on. The intervention of exploring athletically-based careers is perhaps the most valuable in that it encourages students to pursue occupations that still have them working in the field that they have devoted so much time to, but just in a different aspect. If student-athletes take advantage of the opportunity to educate themselves of the origins of the organization they are involved with and the rules and regulations they must follow to take full advantage of their educational opportunity while continuing to participate in their sport, they will certainly have a more positive college experience. If this is added with proper career exploration (whether the outcome is sports-based or not) the student-athlete will be more than prepared for the transition into life after athletics which is very traumatic for most. **References** Beale, A., & Jacobs, J. (2004). Beyond the professional athlete: Introducing middle school students to sports related occupations. Journal of Career Development, 31(2), 111-124.

Brown, G. T. (1999). NCAA answers call to reform: The ‘Sanity Code’ leads association down path to enforcement program. // The NCAA Century Series Part II: 1940- 79. // Retrieved from http://web1.ncaa.org/web_files/NCAANewsArchive/1999/19991122/active/3624n24.html

Epstein, A., Anderson, P., (2009). Utilization of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Manual as a teaching tool. //Journal of Legal Studies Education//, 26 (1), 109-136.

Hartgens, Fred, and Harm Kuipers. (2004). Effects of Androgenic-Anabolic Steroids in Athletes. //Sports Medicine// 34.(8) 513-54.

Hawes, K. (1999a). ‘Its object shall be regulation and supervision:’ NCAA born from need to bridge football and higher education. // The NCAA Century Series Part I: 1900- 39. // Retrieved from http://web1.ncaa.org/web_files/NCAANewsArchive/1999/19991108/active/3623n27.html

Hawes, K. (1999b). Women’s sports enter NCAA arena: After long, difficult debate, association broadens its role. // The NCAA Century Series Part III: 1980-89. // Retrieved from http://web1.ncaa.org/web_files/NCAANewsArchive/1999/19991206/active/3625n32.html

Rinaldi, T. (Reporter). (2010). //OTL: Chronic traumatic encephalopathy//. [Web]. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/video/clip?id=5591963

Sandstedt, S., Cox, R., Martens, M., Ward, D., Webber, S., & Ivey, S. (2004). Development of the student-athlete career situation inventory (SACSI). // Journal of Career Development //, // 31 //(2), 79-93.

Sharp, L. A. & Sheilley, H. K. (2008). The institution’s obligations to Athletes. //New Directions for Higher Education//, 142, 103-113.

Shurts, W., & Shoffner, M. (2004). Providing career counseling for collegiate student-athletes: A learning theory approach. // Journal of Career Development //, // 31 //(2), 95-109.


 * Sigurdardottir, S., Andelic, N., Roe, C., Jerstad, T., & Schanke, A. (2009). Post-concussion symptoms after traumatic brain injury at 3 and 12 months post-injury: A prospective study. ** // Brain Injury //**, ** // 23 //** (6), 489-497. **

The 2010-11 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Manual. Retrieved from []

Vest, B. & Masterson, G. (2007). Title IX and its effect on sports programs in high school and collegiate athletics. //Coach and Athletic Director,// 60-62.

Wiese-Bjornstal, D. (2009). Sport injury and college athlete health across the lifespan. // Journal of Intercollegiate Sports //, // 2 // (1), 64-80.